Summa Theologica the Second Part of the First Part Question 105 Article 3 Iii Q 105 Art 3

Theological treatise by Thomas Aquinas

Summa Theologiae

Page from an incunable edition of function II (Peter Schöffer, Mainz 1471)
Writer	Thomas Aquinas
Translator	Fathers of the English Dominican Province
Language	Latin
Subject	Christian theology
Publisher	Benziger Brothers Printers to the Holy Churchly Encounter
Publication date	1485
Published in English	1911
Media type	Print
Dewey Decimal	230.two
LC Class	BX1749 .T5
Original text	Summa Theologiae at Latin Wikisource
Translation	Summa Theologiae at Wikisource
Composed 1265–1274

The Summa Theologiae or Summa Theologica (transl.  'Summary of Theology'), frequently referred to just as the Summa , is the best-known work of Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274), a scholastic theologian and Doctor of the Church. It is a compendium of all of the primary theological teachings of the Catholic Church, intended to exist an instructional guide for theology students, including seminarians and the literate laity. Presenting the reasoning for virtually all points of Christian theology in the Westward, topics of the Summa follow the post-obit wheel: God; Cosmos, Man; Human being'due south purpose; Christ; the Sacraments; and back to God.

Although unfinished, it is "i of the classics of the history of philosophy and one of the near influential works of Western literature."^[1] Moreover, the Summa remains Aquinas' "most perfect work, the fruit of his mature years, in which the thought of his whole life is condensed."^[two] Amongst not-scholars, the Summa is perhaps nigh famous for its v arguments for the existence of God, which are known equally the "five ways" (Latin: quinque viae). The five ways, withal, occupy only 1 of the Summa 'due south 3,125 articles.

Throughout the Summa, Aquinas cites Christian, Muslim, Hebrew, and Pagan sources, including, but not express to: Christian Sacred Scripture, Aristotle, Augustine of Hippo, Avicenna, Averroes, Al-Ghazali, Boethius, John of Damascus, Paul the Apostle, Pseudo-Dionysius, Maimonides, Anselm of Canterbury, Plato, Cicero, and John Scotus Eriugena.

The Summa is a more-structured and expanded version of Aquinas'southward earlier Summa contra Gentiles, though the 2 were written for different purposes. The Summa Theologiae intended to explain the Christian faith to beginning theology students, whereas the Summa contra Gentiles, to explain the Christian faith and defend it in hostile situations, with arguments adapted to the intended circumstances of its use, each article refuting a certain conventionalities or a specific heresy.^[3]

Aquinas conceived the Summa specifically as a work suited to beginning students:

Quia Catholicae veritatis doctor non solum provectos debet instruere, sed advertisement eum pertinet etiam incipientes erudire, secundum illud apostoli I ad Corinth. Three, tanquam parvulis in Christo, lac vobis potum dedi, not escam; propositum nostrae intentionis in hoc opere est, ea quae ad Christianam religionem pertinent, eo modo tradere, secundum quod congruit ad eruditionem incipientium	Because a md of catholic truth ought not only to teach the good, but to him pertains also to instruct beginners. As the Apostle says in one Corinthians 3: 1–2, equally to infants in Christ, I gave you milk to drink, not meat, our proposed intention in this work is to convey those things that pertain to the Christian religion, in a mode that is plumbing fixtures to the education of beginners.
—"Prooemium," Summa theologiae I, ane.

It was while education at the Santa Sabina studium provinciale—the forerunner of the Santa Maria sopra Minerva studium generale and College of Saint Thomas, which in the 20th century would go the Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, Angelicum—that Aquinas began to compose the Summa. He completed the Prima Pars ('first part') in its entirety and circulated it in Italy before departing to take upwards his 2nd regency as professor at the University of Paris (1269–1272).^[iv]

Not only has the Summa Theologiae been one of the main intellectual inspirations for Thomistic philosophy, but information technology too had such a bang-up influence on Dante Alighieri'due south Divine Comedy, that Dante'south epic verse form has been called "the Summa in verse".^[5] Even today, both in Western and Eastern Cosmic Churches, and the mainstream original Protestant denominations (Anglicanism and Episcopalianism, Lutheranism, Methodism, and Presbyterianism), it is very common for the Summa Theologiae to exist a major reference for those seeking ordination to the diaconate or priesthood, or for professed male person or female person religious life, or for laypersons studying philosophy and theology at the collegiate level.

Construction [edit]

The Summa is structured into:

• 3 Parts ("Pt."), subdivided into:
  • 614 Questions ( quaestiones ; or "QQ"), subdivided into:
    • 3,125 Articles ("Art.").

Questions are specific topics of discussion, whereas their corresponding Articles are further-specified facets of the parent question. For example, Part I, Question ii ("The Existence of God") is divided into 3 manufactures: (1) "Whether the being of God is self-evident?"; (2) "Whether it can be demonstrated that God exists?"; and (3) "Whether God exists?" Additionally, questions on a broader theme are grouped into Treatises, though the category of treatise is reported differently, depending on the source.

The Summa 'southward iii parts have a few other major subdivisions.

• First Role ( Prima Pars ; includes 119 QQ, 584 Articles): The existence and nature of God; the creation of the world; angels; and the nature of man.
• 2d Function (includes 303 QQ, 1536 Manufactures), subdivided into two sub-parts:

• Beginning office of the 2d Part ( Prima Secundae or Part I-2; includes 114 QQ, 619 Articles): General principles of morality (including a theory of law).
• 2d role of the Second Office ( Secunda Secundae or Part II-Ii; includes 189 QQ, 917 Manufactures): Morality in particular, including individual virtues and vices.

• 3rd Function (Tertia Pars; includes 90 QQ, 549 Articles): The person and work of Christ, who is the way of homo to God; and the sacraments. Aquinas left this part unfinished.^[6]

• Supplement (99 QQ, 446 Manufactures): The third part proper is attended by a posthumous supplement which concludes the third part and the Summa, treating of Christian eschatology, or "the last things".

• Appendix I (includes 2 QQ, 8 Manufactures) and Appendix Two (includes 1 Q, 2 Articles): Two very minor appendices which hash out the subject of purgatory.

Commodity format [edit]

The method of exposition undertaken in the articles of the Summa is derived from Averroes, to whom Aquinas refers respectfully as "the Commentator".^[7] The standard format for manufactures of the Summa are every bit follows:

1. A series of objections ( praeterea ) to the notwithstanding-to-be-stated conclusion are given. This conclusion can mostly (merely non without exception) be extracted past setting the introduction to the first objection into the negative.
2. A short counter-statement is given, first with the phrase sed contra ('on the reverse...'). This statement well-nigh ever references authoritative literature, such as the Bible, Aristotle, or the Church Fathers.^[8]
3. The actual argument is made, beginning with the phrase respondeo dicendum quod conversatio ('I answer that...'). This is generally a clarification of the issue.
4. Individual replies to the preceding objections or the counter-statement are given, if necessary. These replies range from ane sentence to several paragraphs in length.

Example [edit]

Consider the example of Part Iii, Question 40 ("Of Christ'south Manner of Life"),^[i] Article iii ("Whether Christ should have led a life of poverty in this globe?"):^[ii]

1. Kickoff, a series of objections to the determination are provided, followed by the extracted conclusion ('therefore'):
   • Objection ane: "Christ should have embraced the most eligible form of life...which is a mean between riches and poverty.... Therefore Christ should have led a life, not of poverty, just of moderation."
   • Objection 2: "Christ conformed His manner of life to those among whom He lived, in the matter of food and raiment. Therefore, it seems that He should have observed the ordinary manner of life as to riches and poverty, and have avoided extreme poverty."
   • Objection 3: "Christ especially invited men to imitate His example of humility.... But humility is well-nigh commendable in the rich.... Therefore it seems that Christ should not accept chosen a life of poverty."
2. A counter-argument is given past referring to Matthew 8:20 and Matthew 17:26.
3. The actual statement is made: "it was fitting for Christ to lead a life of poverty in this globe" for four singled-out reasons. The article and then expounds on these reasons in particular.
4. Aquinas' reply to the above objection is that "those who wish to live virtuously need to avoid abundance of riches and beggary...merely voluntary poverty is not open to this danger: and such was the poverty chosen by Christ."

Structure of Part Two [edit]

Part II of the Summa is divided into ii parts (Prima Secundae and Secunda Secundae). The first part comprises 114 questions, while the 2d part comprises 189. The 2 parts of the second part are normally presented equally containing several "treatises". The contents are as follows:^[9]

Office Ii-I [edit]

• Treatise on the terminal end (qq. 1–5):^[3]
• Treatise on human acts (qq. 6–21)^[four]
  • The will in full general (qq. six–7)
  • The Will (qq. 8–17)
  • Practiced and evil (qq. 8–21)
• Treatise on passions (qq. 22–48)^[v]
  • Passions in full general (qq. 22–25)
  • Love and hatred (qq. 26–29)
  • Concupiscence and delight (qq. xxx–34)
  • Pain and sorrow (qq. 35–39)
  • Fear and daring (qq. xl–45)
  • Anger (qq. 46–48)
• Treatise on habits (qq. 49–70)^[vi]
  • Habits in general; their causes and effects (qq. 49–54)
  • Virtues; intellectual and moral virtues (qq. 55–60)
  • Virtues; key and theological virtues (qq. 61–67)
  • The gifts, beatitudes and blessings of the Holy Ghost (qq. 68–70)
• Treatise on vice and sin (qq. 71–89)^[vii]
  • Vice and sin in themselves; the comparison of sins (qq. 71–74)
  • The general causes of sin; the internal causes of sin (qq. 75–78)
  • The external causes of sin, such as the devil and man himself (qq. 79–84)
  • The corruption of nature the stain of sin; punishment for venial and mortal sin (qq. 85–89)
• Treatise on law (qq. 90–108)^[8]
  • The essence of police; the various kinds of law; its effects (qq. 90–92)
  • Eternal law, natural law, human law (qq. 93–97)
  • The onetime constabulary; ceremonial and judicial precepts (qq. 98–105)
  • The law of the Gospel or new police (qq. 106–108)
• Treatise on grace (qq. 109–114): its necessity, essence, cause and effects^[ix]

Part II-2 [edit]

• Treatise on the theological virtues (qq. 1–46)
• Treatise on the cardinal virtues (qq. 47–170)
  • Treatise on prudence (qq. 47–56)
  • Treatise on justice (qq. 57–122)
  • Treatise on fortitude and temperance (qq. 123–170)
• Treatise on gratuitous graces (qq. 171–182)
• Treatise on the states of life (qq. 183–189)

References within the Summa [edit]

The Summa makes many references to sure thinkers held in peachy respect in Aquinas'due south time. The arguments from authorisation, or sed contra arguments, are near entirely based on citations from these authors. Some were called by special names:

• The Campaigner — Paul the Apostle: He wrote the majority of the New Testament catechism later his conversion, earning him the title of The Apostle in Aquinas'due south Summa even though Paul was not among the original twelve followers of Jesus.
• The Philosopher — Aristotle: He was considered the most astute philosopher, the one who had expressed the most truth up to that time. The chief aim of the Scholastic theologians was to use his precise technical terms and logical system to investigate theology.
• The Commentator — Averroes (Ibn Rushd): He was among the foremost commentators on Aristotle's works in Arabic, and his commentaries were oftentimes translated into Latin (along with Aristotle's text).
• The Primary — Peter Lombard: Writer of the dominant theological text for the time: The Sentences (commentaries on the writings of the Doctors of the Church building)
• The Theologian — Augustine of Hippo: Considered the greatest theologian who had ever lived upwards to that fourth dimension; Augustine's works are frequently quoted by Aquinas.
• The Jurist or The Legal Expert (iurisperitus) — Ulpian (a Roman jurist): the well-nigh-quoted contributor to the Pandects.
• Tully — Marcus Tullius Cicero: famed Roman statesman and orator who was as well responsible for bringing significant swathes of Greek philosophy to Latin-speaking audiences, though generally through summation and commentary in his own work rather than by translation.
• Dionysius — Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite: Aquinas refers to the works of Dionysius, whom scholars of the fourth dimension thought to exist the person mentioned in Acts 17:34 (a disciple of St. Paul). Withal, they were most probable written in Syrian arab republic during the 6th century past a writer who attributed his volume to Dionysius (hence the addition of the prefix "pseudo-" to the name "Dionysius" in virtually modern references to these works).
• Avicenna — Aquinas frequently cites this Persian polymath, the Aristotelian/Neoplatonic/Islamic philosopher Ibn Sina (Avicenna).
• Al-Ghazel —Aquinas also cites the Islamic theologian al-Ghazali (Algazel).
• Rabbi Moses — Rabbi Moses Maimonides: a Jewish rabbinical scholar, a most-contemporary of Aquinas (died 1204, earlier Aquinas). The scholastics derived many insights from his work, as he too employed the scholastic method.
• Damascene — John of Damascus: Syrian Christian monk and priest

Summary and key points [edit]

Graphical delineation of the cyclic structure of the work

St. Thomas's greatest work was the Summa, and it is the fullest presentation of his views. He worked on it from the time of Cloudless IV (later 1265) until the stop of his life. When he died, he had reached Question 90 of Part III (on the subject of penance).^[9] What was defective was added later from the fourth book of his commentary on the Sentences of Peter Lombard as a supplementum, which is not establish in manuscripts of the 13th and 14th centuries. The Summa was translated into: Greek (apparently by Maximus Planudes effectually 1327) and Armenian; many European languages; and Chinese.^[9]

The structure of the Summa Theologiae is meant to reflect the cyclic nature of the cosmos, in the sense of the emission and return of the Many from and to the I in Platonism, cast in terms of Christian theology: The procession of the textile universe from divine essence; the culmination of creation in man; and the motility of man back towards God by way of Christ and the Sacraments.^[10]

The structure of the work reflects this cyclic arrangement. Information technology begins with God and his existence in Question two. The entire first part of the Summa deals with God and his cosmos, which reaches its zenith in human being. The First Part, therefore, ends with the treatise on man. The second part of the Summa deals with man'southward purpose (the pregnant of life), which is happiness. The ideals detailed in this function are a summary of the ethics (Aristotelian in nature) that human must follow to accomplish his intended destiny. Since no human on his own can truly live the perfect ethical life (and therefore reach God), information technology was necessary that a perfect homo bridge the gap betwixt God and homo. Thus God became human being. The third part of the Summa, therefore, deals with the life of Christ.

In guild to follow the fashion prescribed past this perfect man, in order to live with God's grace (which is necessary for human being's conservancy), the Sacraments accept been provided; the last part of the Summa considers the Sacraments.

Key points [edit]

• Theology is the most sure of all sciences considering its source is divine knowledge (which cannot be deceived) and considering of the greater worth of its field of study matter, the sublimity of which transcends human reason.^[10]
• When a man knows an effect and knows that it has a cause, the natural desire of the intellect or listen is to understand the essence of that thing. This understanding is necessary for the perfection of the intellect.^[11]
• The existence of something and its essence are distinct (due east.thou., a mountain of solid gold would have essence, since it tin can be imagined, only non beingness, since it is not in the world). More than precisely, the being of something, and human being's conception/imagination of such, are separate in all things—except for God, who is simple.^[xii]
• Human reasoning alone tin prove: the being of God; His total simplicity or lack of composition; his eternal nature (i.e., He exists outside of time, as time is held to be a part of God'due south created universe); His knowledge; the way His volition operates; and His power. However, although St. Thomas felt that human reason lonely could prove that God created the universe, reason alone could not make up one's mind whether the universe was eternal or really began at some point in time. Rather, only divine revelation from the Book of Genesis proves that.^{[xiii] [xiv]}
• All statements virtually God are either analogical or metaphorical: one cannot say man is "good" in exactly the same sense equally God, but rather that he imitates in some way the uncomplicated nature of God in being good, simply, or wise.^[xv]
• 'Unbelief' is the worst sin in the realm of morals.^[xvi]
• The principles of just state of war^[xvii] and natural constabulary^[xviii]
• The greatest happiness of all, the ultimate skilful, consists in the beatific vision.^[xix]
• Collecting interest on loans is forbidden, because it is charging people twice for the aforementioned matter.^[xx]
• In and of itself, selling a thing for more or less than what information technology is worth is unlawful (the only toll theory).^[xxi]
• The contemplative life is greater than the active life.^[xxii] What is even greater is the contemplative life that takes action to call others to the wistful life and requite them the fruits of contemplation.^[xxiii] (This actually was the lifestyle of the Dominican friars, of which St. Thomas was a fellow member.)
• Both monks and bishops are in a state of perfection.^[xxiv] Being a monk is greater than being married and even greater (in many ways) than being a priest, but it is not every bit proficient as being a bishop.
• Although the Jews delivered Christ to dice, it was the Gentiles who killed him, foreshadowing how salvation would begin with the Jews and spread to the Gentiles.^[xxv]
• After the stop of the world (in which all living material will be destroyed), the world volition be composed of non-living matter (e.one thousand. rocks), but it will be illuminated or enhanced in beauty past the fires of the apocalypse; a new sky and world will be established.^[xxvi]
• Martyrs, teachers of the faith (doctors), and virgins, in that order, receive special crowns in sky for their achievements.^[xxvii]
• "The physicist proves the World to be round past one means, the astronomer past another: for the latter proves this by means of mathematics, eastward. g. by the shapes of eclipses, or something of the sort; while the former proves it past means of physics, e. one thousand. by the movement of heavy bodies towards the center."^[xxviii]

Part I: Theology [edit]

The first part of the Summa is summed up in the premise that God governs the world as the "universal commencement cause". God sways the intellect; he gives the ability to know and impresses the species intelligibiles on the mind, and he sways the will in that he holds the good earlier it as aim, creating the virtus volendi . "To volition is zilch else than a certain inclination toward the object of the volition which is the universal good." God works all in all, but so that things also themselves exert their proper efficiency. Here the Areopagitic ideas of the graduated effects of created things play their part in St. Thomas's thought.^[9]

Part I treats of God, who is the "get-go crusade, himself uncaused" (primum movens immobile) and equally such real only in act (actu)—i.eastward. pure actuality without potentiality, and therefore without corporeality. His essence is actus purus et perfectus. This follows from the fivefold proof for the beingness of God; namely, there must be a outset mover, unmoved, a first cause in the chain of causes, an absolutely necessary beingness, an absolutely perfect being, and a rational designer. In this connection the thoughts of the unity, infinity, unchangeability, and goodness of the highest being are deduced.

As God rules in the world, the "plan of the order of things" preexists in him; in other words, his providence and the exercise of it in his government are what condition equally crusade everything which comes to pass in the world. Hence follows predestination: from eternity some are destined to eternal life, while as concerns others "he permits some to fall short of that end". Reprobation, however, is more than mere foreknowledge; it is the "will of permitting anyone to fall into sin and incur the penalty of condemnation for sin".

The event of predestination is grace. Since God is the kickoff cause of everything, he is the cause of even the gratuitous acts of men through predestination. Determinism is securely grounded in the system of St. Thomas; things (with their source of condign in God) are ordered from eternity equally means for the realization of his end in himself.

On moral grounds, St. Thomas advocates freedom energetically; just, with his premises, he can have in mind only the psychological form of self-motivation. Aught in the world is adventitious or free, although it may appear so in reference to the proximate crusade. From this point of view, miracles become necessary in themselves and are to exist considered merely as inexplicable to man. From the point of view of the first cause, all is unchangeable, although from the express point of view of the secondary cause, miracles may be spoken of.

In his doctrine of the Trinity, Aquinas starts from the Augustinian system. Since God has only the functions of thinking and willing, just ii processiones can exist asserted from the Father; but these establish definite relations of the persons of the Trinity, one to some other. The relations must be conceived as existent and not every bit only platonic; for, equally with creatures relations arise through certain accidents, since in God at that place is no accident but all is substance, it follows that "the relation actually existing in God is the aforementioned equally the essence according to the affair". From some other side, however, the relations every bit real must be really distinguished one from another. Therefore, three persons are to be affirmed in God.

Human stands opposite to God; he consists of soul and body. The "intellectual soul" consists of intellect and will. Furthermore, the soul is the admittedly indivisible form of man; it is immaterial substance, but non one and the same in all men (as the Averroists assumed). The soul's power of knowing has two sides: a passive (the intellectus possibilis) and an active (the intellectus agens).

It is the capacity to form concepts and to abstract the heed'south images (species) from the objects perceived by sense; just since what the intellect abstracts from individual things is universal, the mind knows the universal primarily and straight and knows the atypical only indirectly by virtue of a sure reflexio (cf. Scholasticism). As certain principles are immanent in the mind for its speculative activity, so as well a "special disposition of works"—or the synderesis (rudiment of conscience)—is inborn in the "practical reason", affording the idea of the moral police of nature and so important in medieval ethics.

Part Ii: Ideals [edit]

The second part of the Summa follows this complex of ideas. Its theme is man's striving for the highest terminate, which is the blessedness of the visio beata. Here, St. Thomas develops his system of ethics, which has its root in Aristotle.

In a chain of acts of will, man strives for the highest terminate. They are complimentary acts, insofar as man has in himself the knowledge of their finish (and therein the principle of action). In that the will wills the end, it wills as well the appropriate ways, chooses freely and completes the consensus. Whether the act is good or evil depends on the end. The "human reason" pronounces judgment concerning the character of the end; it is, therefore, the law for activeness. Human acts, yet, are meritorious insofar as they promote the purpose of God and his laurels.

Sin [edit]

Past repeating a good activity, man acquires a moral habit or a quality that enables him to exercise the good gladly and easily. This is truthful, even so, simply of the intellectual and moral virtues (which St. Thomas treats after the style of Aristotle); the theological virtues are imparted past God to man as a "disposition", from which the acts here proceed; while they strengthen, they practice not form it. The "disposition" of evil is the opposite alternative.

An human action becomes evil through deviation from the reason and from divine moral law. Therefore, sin involves two factors:

1. its substance (or thing) is lust; and
2. its grade is deviation from the divine law.

Sin has its origin in the volition, which decides (against reason) for a "changeable good". Since, notwithstanding, the will also moves the other powers of man, sin has its seat in these too. By choosing such a lower good as its end, the will is misled by self-dearest, so that this works equally crusade in every sin. God is not the cause of sin since, on the contrary, he draws all things to himself; only from another side, God is the cause of all things, then he is efficacious also in sin as actio but non as ens. The devil is non directly the cause of sin, but he incites the imagination and the sensuous impulse of man (equally men or things may also do).

Sin is original sin. Adam's outset sin passes through himself to all the succeeding race; because he is the caput of the human race and "by virtue of procreation human nature is transmitted and along with nature its infection." The powers of generation are, therefore, designated specially as "infected". The idea is involved here by the fact that St. Thomas, like other scholastics, believed in creationism; he therefore taught that souls are created by God.

Two things, co-ordinate to St. Thomas, constituted homo'due south righteousness in paradise:

1. the justitia originalis ('original justice'), i.e., the harmony of all human being's powers before they were blighted by desire; and
2. the possession of the gratis gratum faciens (the continuous, indwelling power of good).

Both are lost through original sin, which, in form, is the "loss of original righteousness". The consequence of this loss is the disorder and maiming of man'due south nature, which shows itself in "ignorance; malice, moral weakness, and especially in concupiscentia, which is the material principle of original sin." The course of thought here is as follows: when the kickoff man transgressed the order of his nature appointed by nature and grace, he (and with him the homo race) lost this order. This negative state is the essence of original sin. From information technology follow an impairment and perversion of human being nature in which thenceforth lower aims rule, contrary to nature, and release the lower chemical element in man.

Since sin is contrary to the divine order, it is guilt and subject field to punishment. Guilt and punishment represent to each other; and since the "betrayment from the invariable proficient which is infinite," fulfilled past man, is unending, it claim everlasting penalisation.

God works even in sinners to draw them to the stop by "instructing through the law and aiding by grace." The law is the "precept of the practical reason". As the moral law of nature, it is the participation of the reason in the all-determining "eternal reason"; but since man falls short in his appropriation of this law of reason, in that location is need of a "divine law"; and since the law applies to many complicated relations, the practicae dispositiones of the human law must be laid downward.

Grace [edit]

The divine law consists of an erstwhile and a new. Insofar as the old divine law contains the moral law of nature, information technology is universally valid; what there is in it, notwithstanding, beyond this is valid but for the Jews. The new law is "primarily grace itself" and then a "law given within"; "a souvenir superadded to nature by grace", but non a "written constabulary". In this sense, as sacramental grace, the new police justifies. It contains, however, an "ordering" of external and internal conduct and and so regarded is, as a thing of form, identical with both the old police and the constabulary of nature. The consilia show how one may reach the end "better and more expediently" by full renunciation of worldly appurtenances.

Since man is sinner and creature, he needs grace to accomplish the concluding finish. The "first cause" lonely is able to reclaim him to the "final end". This is true afterward the autumn, although it was needful before. Grace is, on one side, "the free act of God", and, on the other side, the event of this act, the gratia infusa or gratia creata, a habitus infusus that is instilled into the "essence of the soul... a certain gift of disposition, something supernatural proceeding from God into man." Grace is a supernatural ethical character created in human being past God, which comprises in itself all skillful, both faith and love.

Justification by grace comprises 4 elements:^[9]

1. "infusion of grace";
2. "the influencing of free will toward God through faith";
3. the influencing of free will respecting sin"; and
4. "the remission of sins".

Grace is a "transmutation of the human soul" that takes identify "instantaneously". A artistic deed of God enters, which executes itself as a spiritual motive in a psychological form corresponding to the nature of man. Semi-pelagian tendencies are far removed from St. Thomas. In that man is created anew, he believes and loves, and now, sin is forgiven. Then begins good conduct; grace is the "beginning of meritorious works". Aquinas conceives of merit in the Augustinian sense: God gives the reward for that toward which he himself gives the power. Man can never of himself deserve the prima free, nor meritum de congruo (past natural power; cf. R. Seeberg, Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte, ii. 105–106, Leipsic, 1898).

Virtues [edit]

Later thus stating the principles of morality, in the Secunda Secundae, St. Thomas comes to a minute exposition of his ethics co-ordinate to the scheme of the virtues. The conceptions of faith and dear are of much significance in the complete system of St. Thomas. Man strives toward the highest proficient with the will or through love; but since the end must start be "apprehended in the intellect", noesis of the end to be loved must precede dear; "because the will can not strive after God in perfect dearest unless the intellect have true faith toward him."

Inasmuch every bit this truth that is to exist known is practical, it first incites the will, which then brings the reason to "assent"; but since, furthermore, the practiced in question is transcendent and inaccessible to man by himself, it requires the infusion of a supernatural "chapters" or "disposition" to make man capable of organized religion as well as love.

Appropriately, the object of both religion and love is God, involving also the unabridged complex of truths and commandments that God reveals, insofar every bit they in fact relate to God and atomic number 82 to him. Thus, faith becomes recognition of the teachings and precepts of the Scriptures and the Church building ("the outset subjection of man to God is by faith"). The object of faith, nonetheless, is, by its nature, object of love; therefore, religion comes to completion but in love ("by dearest is the human activity of faith accomplished and formed").

Law [edit]

Police force is cypher else than an ordinance of reason for the mutual proficient, made by him who has care of the community, and promulgated.

— Summa Theologica, Pt. II-II, Q. 90, Article 4

All police comes from the eternal police force of Divine Reason that governs the universe, which is understood and participated in past rational beings (such as men and angels) as the natural law. The natural law, when codified and promulgated, is lex humana ('man law').^[viii]

In add-on to the human police, dictated by reason, man as well has the divine police, which, co-ordinate to Question 91, is dictated through revelation, that homo may be "directed how to perform his proper acts in view of his last end", "that man may know without any doubt what he ought to do and what he ought to avoid", because "human law could not sufficiently adjourn and straight interior acts", and since "man constabulary cannot punish or forestall all evil deeds: since while aiming at doing abroad with all evils, it would practice away with many good things, and would hinder the advance of the common good, which is necessary for homo intercourse." Human law is non all-powerful; information technology cannot govern a man's conscience, nor prohibit all vices, nor can it force all men to human action co-ordinate to its letter, rather than its spirit.

Furthermore, information technology is possible that an edict tin be issued without any ground in law as defined in Question 90; in this case, men are under no compulsion to human action, save every bit information technology helps the common good. This separation betwixt law and acts of forcefulness also allows men to depose tyrants, or those who flout the natural law; while removing an agent of the law is contrary to the common good and the eternal police of God, which orders the powers that be, removing a tyrant is lawful as he has ceded his claim to being a lawful authority by acting contrary to law.

Office Iii: Christ [edit]

The way which leads to God is Christ, the theme of Part III. It can exist asserted that the incarnation was absolutely necessary. The Unio betwixt the Logos and the human nature is a "relation" betwixt the divine and the human nature, which comes about past both natures existence brought together in the i person of the Logos. An incarnation tin can be spoken of simply in the sense that the human being nature began to be in the eternal hypostasis of the divine nature. So Christ is unum since his human nature lacks the hypostasis.

The person of the Logos, accordingly, has assumed the impersonal human being nature, and in such fashion that the assumption of the soul became the ways for the assumption of the body. This spousal relationship with the human soul is the gratia unionis, which leads to the impartation of the gratia habitualis from the Logos to the human nature. Thereby, all human potentialities are made perfect in Jesus. Besides the perfections given by the vision of God, which Jesus enjoyed from the kickoff, he receives all others by the gratia habitualis. Insofar, however, as it is the limited human nature which receives these perfections, they are finite. This holds both of the knowledge and the will of Christ.

The Logos impresses the species intelligibiles of all created things on the soul, but the intellectus agens transforms them gradually into the impressions of sense. On another side, the soul of Christ works miracles only every bit instrument of the Logos, since omnipotence in no style appertains to this human soul in itself. Apropos redemption, St. Thomas teaches that Christ is to be regarded every bit redeemer later his human nature but in such way that the human being nature produces divine effects as organ of divinity.

The one side of the work of redemption consists herein, that Christ as caput of humanity imparts ordo, perfectio, and virtus to his members. He is the teacher and example of humanity; his whole life and suffering too as his work after he is exalted serve this end. The love wrought hereby in men effects, according to Luke vii. 47, the forgiveness of sins.

This is the first course of thought. Then follows a second circuitous of thoughts, which has the idea of satisfaction as its heart. To be sure, God as the highest existence could forgive sins without satisfaction; simply because his justice and mercy could be best revealed through satisfaction, he chose this way. Equally niggling, however, equally satisfaction is necessary in itself, so footling does it offering an equivalent, in a right sense, for guilt; it is rather a "superabundant satisfaction", since on account of the divine subject in Christ in a certain sense his suffering and activity are infinite.

With this thought, the strict logical deduction of Anselm's theory is given up. Christ's suffering bore personal grapheme in that it proceeded "out of honey and obedience". It was an offering brought to God, which every bit a personal act had the character of merit. Thereby, Christ "merited" salvation for men. Equally Christ, exalted, still influences men, so does he however work on their behalf continually in sky through the intercession (interpellatio).

In this fashion, Christ as head of humanity furnishings the forgiveness of their sins, their reconciliation with God, their immunity from punishment, deliverance from the devil, and the opening of heaven's gate; but inasmuch every bit all these benefits are already offered through the inner functioning of the love of Christ, Aquinas has combined the theories of Anselm and Abelard past joining the i to the other.

The sacraments [edit]

The doctrine of the sacraments follows the Christology; the sacraments "have efficacy from the incarnate Give-and-take himself". They are not only signs of sanctification, merely also bring it about. It is inevitable that they bring spiritual gifts in sensuous course, because of the sensuous nature of man. The res sensibiles are the matter, the words of institution the form of the sacraments. Contrary to the Franciscan view that the sacraments are mere symbols whose efficacy God accompanies with a directly following artistic act in the soul, St. Thomas holds it not unfit to agree with Hugo of St. Victor that "a sacrament contains grace", or to teach that they "cause grace".

St. Thomas attempts to remove the difficulty of a sensuous matter producing a creative issue, by distinguishing between the causa principalis et instrumentalis. God, as the primary crusade, works through the sensuous thing equally the means ordained by him for his end. "Just as instrumental power is acquired past the musical instrument from this, that it is moved by the principal agent, so besides the sacrament obtains spiritual ability from the benediction of Christ and the application of the minister to the use of the sacrament. There is spiritual ability in the sacraments in then far equally they have been ordained by God for a spiritual effect." This spiritual power remains in the sensuous affair until it has attained its purpose. At the same time, St. Thomas distinguished the gratia sacramentalis from the gratia virtutum et donorum, in that the quondam perfects the general essence and the powers of the soul, whilst the latter in detail brings to pass necessary spiritual effects for the Christian life. Subsequently, this distinction was ignored.

In a single statement, the issue of the sacraments is to infuse justifying grace into men. That which Christ effects is achieved through the sacraments. Christ'southward humanity was the instrument for the operation of his divinity; the sacraments are the instruments through which this operation of Christ's humanity passes over to men. Christ'due south humanity served his divinity as instrumentum conjunctum, similar the hand; the sacraments are instrumenta separata, like a staff; the one-time can use the latter, as the paw can apply a staff. (For a more detailed exposition, cf. Seeberg, ut sup., ii. 112 sqq.)

Eschatology [edit]

Of St. Thomas's eschatology, according to the commentary on the Sentences, this is only a brief account. Everlasting blessedness consists in the vision of God – this vision consists non in an brainchild or in a mental image supernaturally produced, only the divine substance itself is beheld, and in such manner that God himself becomes immediately the form of the beholding intellect. God is the object of the vision and, at the aforementioned time, causes the vision.

The perfection of the blest also demands that the body be restored to the soul as something to be made perfect past it. Since blessedness consists in operatio, it is made more than perfect in that the soul has a definite operatio with the body, although the peculiar human activity of blessedness (in other words, the vision of God) has nothing to do with the body.

Editions and translations [edit]

Editions [edit]

Early partial editions were printed still in the 15th century, equally early every bit 1463; an edition of the first section of part ii was printed by Peter Schöffer of Mainz in 1471.^[xi] A full edition was printed by Michael Wenssler of Basel in 1485.^[12] From the 16th century, numerous commentaries on the Summa were published, notably by Peter Crockaert (d. 1514), Francisco de Vitoria and by Thomas Cajetan (1570).

• 1663. Summa totius theologiae (Ordinis Praedicatorum ed.), edited by Gregorio Donati (d. 1642)
• 1852–73. Parma edition. Opera Omnia, Parma: Fiaccadori.
• 1871–82. Vivès edition. Opera Omnia, Paris: Vivès.
• 1886. Editio altera romana, edited by Pope Leo 13. Forzani, Rome.^[13]
• 1888. Leonine Edition, edited by Roberto Busa, with commentary by Thomas Cajetan.^[14]
• 1964–80. Blackfriars edition (61 vols., Latin and English with notes and introductions, London: Eyre & Spottiswoode (New York: McGraw-Loma. 2006. ISBN 9780521690485 pbk).

Translations [edit]

The about accessible English translation of the work is that originally published by Benziger Brothers, in five volumes, in 1911 (with a revised edition published in 1920).

The translation is entirely the work of Laurence Shapcote (1864-1947), an English Dominican friar. Wanting to remain anonymous, however, he attributed the translation to the Fathers of the English Dominican Province. Father Shapcote besides translated various of Aquinas'south other works.^[xv]

• 1886–1892. Die katholische Wahrheit oder die theologische Summa des Thomas von Aquin (in German), translated past C.M Schneider. Regensburg: 1000. J. Manz.^[xvi]
• 1911. The Summa Theologiæ of St. Thomas Aquinas, translated by Fathers of the English Dominican Province. New York: Benzinger Brothers.
  • 1920. The Summa Theologiæ of St. Thomas Aquinas (revised ed.). London: Benzinger Brothers.^[17]
  • 1947. (reissue, three vols.) New York: Benzinger Brothers.^[18]
  • 1981. Westminster, Physician: Christian Classics.
• 1927–43. Theologische Summa (in Dutch), translated by Dominicanen Social club. Antwerpen.^[19]
• 1964–80. Blackfriars edition (61 vols., Latin and English with notes and introductions, London: Eyre & Spottiswoode, and New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company), paperback edition 2006 (ISBN 9780521690485).
• 1989. Summa Theologiae: A Curtailed Translation, T. McDermott. London: Eyre & Spottiswoode.

Come across also [edit]

• List of works by Thomas Aquinas
• Sentences of Peter Lombard
• Summa logicae of William of Ockham
• Antoninus of Florence (d. 1459), writer of a Summa theologica printed in 1477

References [edit]

Primary sources [edit]

1. ^ Summa Theologica, Pt. 3, Q. 40. Retrieved 23 May 2020.
2. ^ Summa Theologica, Pt. 3, Q. 40, Fine art. 3. Retrieved 23 May 2020.
3. ^ Summa Theologica, Pt. Two-I, Q. 1–5.
4. ^ Summa Theologica, Pt. II-I, Q. one–21.
5. ^ Summa Theologica, Pt. Two-I, Q. 22–48.
6. ^ Summa Theologica, Pt. Ii-I, Q. 49–70.
7. ^ Summa Theologica, Pt. II-I, Q. 71–89.
8. ^ ^{a b} Summa Theologica, Pt. II-I, Q. 90–108.
9. ^ Summa Theologica, Pt. II-I, Q. 109–114.
10. ^ Summa Theologica, Pt. I, Q. 1, Art. 5. Retrieved eleven July 2006.
11. ^ Summa Theologica, Pt. Two-I, Q. 3, Art. eight; and Fine art. 6-7.
12. ^ Summa Theologica, Pt. I, Q. three, Art. four. Aquinas develops this line of thought more fully in a shorter work, De ente et essentia.
13. ^ Romans 1:19–20
14. ^ Summa Theologica, Pt. I, Q. ii, Art. 2. See besides: Pt. I, Q. 1, Art. 8.
15. ^ Summa Theologica, Pt. I, Q. four, Art. 3.
16. ^ Summa Theologica, Pt. II-II, Q. 10, Art. 3. Retrieved eleven July 2006. However, at other points, Aquinas, with different meanings of "great" makes the merits for pride, despair, and hatred of God.
17. ^ Summa Theologica, Pt. II-II, Q. xl.
18. ^ Summa Theologica, Pt. I-II, Q. 91, Art. two; and Pt. I-2, Q. 94.
19. ^ Summa Theologica, Pt. I-Two, Q. 2, Art. eight.
20. ^ Summa Theologica, Pt. 2-Ii, Q. 78, Art. 1.
21. ^ Summa Theologica, Pt. Ii-II, Q. 77, Art. 1.
22. ^ Summa Theologica, Pt. II-II, Q. 182, Fine art. 1.
23. ^ Summa Theologica, Pt. II-2, Q. 182, Art. iv.
24. ^ Summa Theologica, Pt. II-2, Q. 184.
25. ^ Summa Theologica, Pt. III, Q. 47, Fine art. 4.
26. ^ Supplement, Q. 91; and Supplement, Q. 74, Art. 9.
27. ^ Supplement, Q. 96, Arts. 5–vii.
28. ^ Summa Theologica, Pt. I-Two, Q. 54, Art. ii.

Citations [edit]

1. ^ Ross, James F. 2003. "Thomas Aquinas, 'Summa theologiae' (ca. 1273), Christian Wisdom Explained Philosophically." P. 165 in The Classics of Western Philosophy: A Reader's Guide, edited past J. J. E. Gracia, G. M. Reichberg, B. Northward. Schumacher. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 9780631236115.
2. ^ Perrier, Joseph Louis. 1909. "The Revival of Scholastic Philosophy in the Nineteenth Century." New York: Columbia Academy Printing. pg. 149.
3. ^ Gilson, Etienne (1994). The Christian Philosophy of Saint Thomas Aquinas. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Printing. p. 502. ISBN978-0-268-00801-7.
4. ^ Torrell, Jean-Pierre. 1996. Saint Thomas Aquinas, vol ane, The Person and His Work, translated past Robert Royal. Catholic University. 146 ff.
5. ^ Fordham University. Oct. 1921–June 1922. The Fordham Monthly 40:76.
6. ^ McInerny, Ralph. 1990. A Starting time Glance at St. Thomas Aquinas. Notre Dame Printing: Indiana. ISBN 0-268-00975-9. p.197.
7. ^ "St. Thomas Aquinas used the "Grand Commentary" of Averroes every bit his model, existence, patently, the first Scholastic to adopt that way of exposition..." Turner, William. 1907. "Averroes." In The Catholic Encyclopedia 2. New York: Robert Appleton Visitor. Retrieved 2009-11-06.
8. ^ Kreeft, Peter. 1990. Summa of the Summa. Ignatius Press. pp. 17–18. ISBN 0-89870-300-10.
9. ^ ^{a b c d east} 1911. "Thomas Aquinas." In The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge eleven. pp. 422–27.
10. ^ O'Meara, Thomas Franklin. 2006. Summa Theologiae: Volume 40, Superstition and Irreverence. Cambridge: Cambridge Academy Press. p. 19.
11. ^ Bridwell Library (smu.edu)
12. ^ OCLC 699664146.
13. ^ Pope Leo XIII, ed. 1886. Summa Theologica (editio altera romana). Rome: Forzani.
14. ^ Busa, Roberto, ed. 1888. Summa Theologiae (Leonine ed.), with commentary past T. Cajetan. – via Corpus Thomisticum.
    
15. ^ "Thomas Aquinas'southward 'Summa Theologiae': A Guide and Commentary" by Brian Davies [Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014, p. xiv]. From 1917 until his death, Shapcote was based in Natal Province, South Africa. Fergus Kerr, "The Shapcote Translation", New Blackfriars (August 2011), doi:x.1111/j.1741-2005.2011.01454.10.
16. ^ Emmenegger, Gregor, ed. 2008. "Summe der Theologie" (in High german), transcribed past F. Fabri. Bibliothek der Kirchenväter. Fribourg: Université Fribourg.
17. ^ Aquinas, Thomas. 1920. The Summa Theologiæ of St. Thomas Aquinas (revised ed.), translated by Fathers of the English Dominican Province. – via New Advent.— Summa Theologica, (Complete American edition) at Projection Gutenberg
18. ^ 1947. Summa Theologica (reissue, 3 vols.). New York: Benzinger Brothers. ASIN 0870610635. – via Sacred Texts. IntraText edition (2007).
19. ^ Beenakker, Carlo, ed. Theologische Summa, translated by Dominicanen Guild. Antwerpen.

References [edit]

• Perrier, Joseph Louis. 1909. The Revival of Scholastic Philosophy in the Nineteenth Century. New York: The Columbia University Press.
•  This commodity incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:Seeburg, Reinhold (1914). "Thomas Aquinas". In Jackson, Samuel Macauley (ed.). New Schaff–Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge. Vol. XI (third ed.). London and New York: Funk and Wagnalls. pp. 422–427.

Further reading [edit]

• McGinn, Bernard (2014). Thomas Aquinas'southward Summa theologiae: A Biography. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN978-0-691-15426-eight.
• Thomas Aquinas (1952), edd. Walter Farrell, OP, and Martin J. Healy, My Way of Life: Pocket Edition of St. Thomas—The Summa Simplified for Everyone, Brooklyn: Confraternity of the Precious Blood.
• Pegues (O.P.), Thomas; Whitacre (O.P.), Ælred (1922). Catechism of the Summa theologica of Saint Thomas Aquinas for the use of the faithful. archive.org. London: Burns, Oates & Washbourne. p. 344. Archived from the original on Nov 18, 2018. (with imprimatur of Edmund Canon Surmont, General of Westminster)

External links [edit]

• Online edition
• Latin-English version
• Intratext version
• Summa Theologiæ (A Searchable Latin text for Android devices)
• Summa Theologica public domain audiobook at LibriVox
• Summa Theologiae (A new English translation in progress, by Alfred Freddoso)
• Prima pars secunde partis Summe Theologie beati Thome de Aquino. Naples, 1484. (Digitized codex, Latin text, at Somni)

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